KAPPAPHYCUS ALVAREZII Κ-CARRAGEENAN-BASED HYDROGEL SYSTEMS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS: A REVIEW ON RECENT ADVANCES AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Nandhini Gopalakrishnan, Hemadharshini Arumugam, Suganthi Ramasamy*

Marine macroalgae represent an increasingly important renewable source of structurally diverse polysaccharides with potential applications in biomedical engineering. Among cultivated red seaweeds, Kappaphycus alvarezii is one of the major industrial sources of κ-carrageenan, a sulfated galactan characterized by a three-dimensional network-forming capability, hydrophilicity, biodegradability and favorable physicochemical properties. κ-Carrageenan can undergo physical or chemical gelation and can therefore be engineered into hydrogels, films, sponges, injectable systems and composite scaffolds. These characteristics have attracted considerable interest in wound management, drug delivery, tissue engineering, antimicrobial biomaterials and regenerative medicine. Recent studies have demonstrated that K. alvarezii-derived carrageenan can promote fibroblast proliferation and migration and accelerate wound closure, while purified κ-carrageenan has demonstrated activity against several wound-associated bacterial pathogens. Advances in extraction technologies, including ultrasound-assisted processing, have further improved extraction efficiency and enabled better control of carrageenan physicochemical properties. Nevertheless, native carrageenan hydrogels may exhibit insufficient mechanical strength, rapid or poorly controlled degradation and sensitivity to ionic conditions. Consequently, current research increasingly focuses on composite networks, chemical modification, nanomaterial incorporation and hybrid hydrogel architectures. This review summarizes the origin, molecular characteristics, extraction, gelation mechanisms, physicochemical properties and biomedical applications of K. alvarezii κ-carrageenan-based hydrogels. Recent developments in wound healing, antimicrobial systems, drug delivery and tissue engineering are discussed, together with major limitations, regulatory considerations and future research opportunities. Particular emphasis is placed on developing multifunctional, mechanically stable, biocompatible and clinically translatable hydrogel systems from sustainably cultivated marine biomass.